PLOS Water

Observational gaps leave global assessment of riverine heatwaves lagging across inland waters

2026-02-13T14:00:00Z

by Sebastiano Piccolroaz, Senlin Zhu

Groundwater quality near an oil field in a stream-dominated recharge setting, California, USA

2026-02-12T14:00:00Z

by Jennifer S. Stanton, Michael J. Stephens, Matthew K. Landon, David H. Shimabukuro, Andrew G. Hunt, Justin T. Kulongoski, Isabelle M. Cozzarelli, Theron A. Sowers

Alluvial valley aquifers are important sources of water supply in many areas but effects of co-located oil and gas development on these resources have not been widely reported, especially in settings where recharge is dominated by stream infiltration. Interpreting the presence of geochemical indicators in the context of hydrology, geology, and other factors provides a more complete understanding of the relations between groundwater and sources of oil-field fluids and aids in identifying risks associated with oil and gas development. Groundwater and Salinas River water samples were collected in an alluvial valley near the San Ardo Oil Field in Monterey County, California and analyzed for a wide range of dissolved chemical, gas, and isotopic constituents to determine if oil-field fluids (water and gas from oil-producing and non-producing zones) have mixed with fresh groundwater used for supply. Hydraulic gradients, age-dating tracers, and other geochemical indicators showed that recharge from the Salinas River has the potential to dilute oil-field fluids that might migrate or seep into the aquifer. Groundwater and Salinas River water collected downgradient of the San Ardo Oil Field showed little or no evidence of mixing with oil-field fluids. Some samples within the oil field contained trace amounts of hydrocarbons or elevated temperatures, indicating that any potential effects from oil-field activities are minor or have been diluted by recharge from the Salinas River. The two samples with the most geochemical evidence of potential mixing with oil-field fluids (SP-18 and GW-17) were collected west of or along the Los Lobos fault, where naturally occurring hydrocarbons are near the land surface. Those samples were also collected near active or inactive oil-field wells, and so anthropogenic activities and pathways could not be ruled out as a cause of trace detections of hydrocarbons and elevated temperatures in the aquifer.

WASHed in stereotypes: A rigorous review of water-gender narratives in LMICs

2026-02-12T14:00:00Z

by Spurthi Kolipaka, Paul Hutchings, Anna Mdee

Over the past few decades, water programs have positioned women as primary beneficiaries, aiming to empower them through improved access and participation. In doing so, several gendered narratives have emerged, widely circulated but seldom interrogated, that continue to shape water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) policy and practice. Despite a growing body of literature on WASH and gender, there is a lack of critical investigation of such narratives and its underlying assumptions. A rigorous systematic review was conducted across five databases to identify peer-reviewed empirical studies published in English between 2015 and 2024 (SDG era). 48 studies from Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) were included to assess the assumptions underpinning three dominant water-gender narratives: that gender quotas enable women’s active participation in water committees, that lack of household water facilities puts women at violence risk, and that improved water access leads to time savings enabling economic empowerment. Using thematic analysis grounded in the Gender and Development (GAD) approach, this review takes a deep dive into the empirical basis of the included studies, complemented with wider discussions. Findings revealed a disjuncture between popular narratives and women’s lived realities. Gender quotas often increased nominal representation but rarely translated into active participation or efforts for power redistribution. Narratives that linked water to gender-based violence oversimplified complex issues, while reinforcing patriarchal controls, neglecting women’s right to public spaces and male accountability. Time savings from water fetching linked to economic opportunities rested on several flawed assumptions, ignoring intra-household dynamics and resource gaps. This review contributes to reframing that language by interrogating persistent gender myths and challenging oversimplified, instrumentalist narratives. By critically unpacking these narratives, it calls for more context-sensitive, intersectional, and transdisciplinary approaches to water and gender, reframing expectations from the WASH sector as well as recentering the focus on structural inequalities and lived experiences.

Disciplining sanitation: Interrogating disciplinary narratives of inequalities in access to sanitation

2026-02-11T14:00:00Z

by Virginia Roaf, Barbara Evans, Geoff Goodwin, Paul Hutchings

Socially responsive water adaptation planning: Lessons from community-informed water modeling in Bolivia and Cambodia

2026-02-11T14:00:00Z

by Laura Forni, Marina R. L. Mautner, Nyah Mallak, Megan Gash, Annette Huber-Lee, Cynthia McDougall

Water for climate action

2026-02-09T14:00:00Z

by Jon Lane

Developing environmental flows and metrics to quantify river ecosystem needs for regional water planning in Georgia, USA

2026-02-09T14:00:00Z

by Laura E. Rack, Mary C. Freeman, Gail Cowie, Carol Yang, Steven Kyle McKay, Laura S. Craig, Seth J. Wenger

Effective water management requires the capacity to make trade-offs among diverse uses of water such as municipal water supply, irrigation, and ecological outcomes. Environmental flow management seeks to understand the relationships between river flows and ecosystem processes to evaluate the relative change in ecological outcomes associated with different strategies for river management. However, operationalizing ecological flow thresholds remains technically and administratively challenging, particularly at large scales. Here, we present a case study identifying environmental flow targets using the functional flows framework in the Oconee River Basin, Georgia, USA. Quantitative discharge thresholds are developed for five ecologically relevant flows addressing channel maintenance, floodplain connectivity, springtime pulses, reproductive season baseflows, and dry season baseflows. We demonstrate how these targets integrate ecosystem water needs into a broader state-level water planning process. Four themes emerge from this case study that are applicable in other geographies and contexts. First, environmental flow targets cannot be abstracted from their physical, ecological, and political geography, and context-specificity is critical to developing management-relevant flow targets. Second, quantitative environmental flow thresholds help establish ecological outcomes on equal footing with socio-economic uses of water in planning processes. Third, environmental flow frameworks should align with the management scope so that metrics also align with established evaluation criteria. Finally, decision makers should be provided with information to evaluate and interpret different outcomes for environmental flow targets alongside other water management targets. Despite these complexities, environmental flow analyses remain an essential tool to address the threats to freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity driven by human alteration, water use, and global change.

How to stop the flow of lead in new and existing drinking water systems

2026-02-06T14:00:00Z

by Jennifer Hoponick Redmon, Aaron Salzberg, Jennifer De France, Jorge Alvarez-Sala, Anna Murray, Rachel Peletz, Mike Fisher, Lindsay Lange, Lauren Post Thomas, Dain Hansen, Lillian Idrakua, Nicole M. DeLuca, Andrew Kondash, Katherine King, Timothy Purvis, Kaida Liang, Parvin Ngala, Siddhartha Roy, Abdullah Fadil, Robel L. Wamisho, Solomon L. Minyila, Christopher Lindsay

Genomic characterization of resistant Escherichia coli isolated from household water in municipal Ibadan, Nigeria

2026-02-04T14:00:00Z

by Ifeoluwa Akintayo, Jesutofunmi S. Odeyemi, Olumuyiwa S. Alabi, Halimat O. Mohammed, Odion O. Ikhimiukor, Ayorinde O. Afolayan, Nicholas R. Thomson, Iruka N. Okeke

Escherichia coli in water indicates recent faecal contamination and possible presence of enteric pathogens. Strains harbouring virulence and/or antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) heighten the public health risk. Although, E. coli contamination of water sources is frequently documented in Nigeria, isolates are typically not characterized. This study whole genome sequenced (WGS) previously isolated E. coli from household water in Ibadan, Nigeria to understand community transmission of this fecal indicator, its role as a resistance gene reservoir and the extent to which household water isolates carry virulence genes. The recent E. coli isolates were antimicrobial susceptibility tested and Illumina sequenced. Multi-Locus Sequence Types (MLST), virulence genes and plasmid replicons were determined using ABRicate. ARGs were detected using AMRFinderplus, while phylogroups and serotypes determined using ClermonTyper and ECTyper, respectively. Phylogenetic relatedness was assessed with RAxML. Of the 97 isolates, most arising from wells across all Ibadan metropolitan Local Government Areas, 39(40.2%) were multidrug resistant (MDR) and 13(15.9%) possessed virulence genes associated with enteroaggregative and enterotoxigenic pathotypes. Thirty-seven ARGs spanning nine antibiotic classes were detected. Most isolates belonged to phylogroup A and B1, comprising 35 unique STs and there were seven expanded clones of four or more isolates. Frequent recovery of MDR and potentially pathogenic E. coli from household water in Ibadan highlights a serious public health threat, particularly as phylogenetic evidence suggests that clonal expansion may be driving AMR transmission. Strengthening household water safety practices and implementing routine genomic surveillance are essential to mitigate waterborne diseases risks and limit AMR dissemination.

Fluid data: The problem of accurately estimating household access to water and sanitation in the United States

2026-02-03T14:00:00Z

by Stephen P. Gasteyer, Kimberly Slinde Lemme, Autumn Bland

Recent high-profile crises have disrupted the myth of universal access to potable water and sanitation in the United States. According to the Joint Monitoring Project on access to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (JMP), more than 99% of the population have unfettered access to water services [1]. Reports and scholarly papers, however, show higher numbers lacking potable water and/or sanitation services – specifically in places with high percentages of historically marginalized populations. Mainstream media, politicians, and agency functionaries generally voice support for addressing the issue. Still, sustainable programs, policy development, and activism have been hampered by a lack of data that accurately depicts the problem. In this essay we analyze the currently available data collection systems estimating water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) access in the United States – in databases located across multiple government agencies to measure different policy objectives, and at different temporal and geographic scales. This leads to rather disparate estimates of the scope and magnitude of the problem and creates an information landscape that is difficult to navigate for those focused on improving conditions. We discuss new initiatives (specifically portals and dashboards) that aim to improve data availability, accuracy, and visualization to drive better policies, programs, and actions toward closing the WaSH gap in the United States. These are important steps for improving data about access to potable water and functional sanitation.

Barriers to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) cluster coordination during emergencies in sub-Saharan Africa: A scoping review

2026-02-02T14:00:00Z

by Abayneh Asrat Yimenu, Melaku Teshale Gemechu, Emnet Tesfaye Shimber, Patricia Ndugga

Humanitarian emergencies across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are increasing in scale and complexity, making coordinated WASH responses critical. The cluster approach, introduced in 2005 to streamline humanitarian action, is widely used, yet its implementation remains challenging. This review mapped existing literature to identify barriers affecting WASH cluster coordination during emergencies in SSA. Searches were conducted across PubMed, ReliefWeb, Humanitarian Library, and additional targeted gray literature searches for studies published between 2014 and 2024. Following the 2024 JBI framework, 39 studies met the inclusion criteria. Data were charted using a predefined framework and analyzed thematically. Findings indicate that WASH coordination in SSA is structurally limited, constrained by short and unpredictable funding, insecurity, limited local capacity, and inconsistent communication and monitoring systems. Coordination challenges were interconnected: conflict settings faced political interference and access restrictions, while non-conflict settings experienced weak preparedness, poor surveillance, and misalignment with long-term systems. Funding gaps limited continuity and preparedness, while fragmented coordination, unclear roles, and limited inclusion of local actors reflected structural issues within the cluster. Limited local capacity increased reliance on external expertise and contributed to high staff turnover. Monitoring gaps were universal and hindered accountability and timely decision-making. These barriers prevent coordination mechanisms from becoming resilient and reflect deeper issues of power imbalance, rigid funding, and fragmented governance. Persistent gaps in localization, multi-year financing, accountability, and integration with long-term systems illustrate the ongoing challenge in translating major humanitarian reform commitments into practical improvements. Most studies originated from East Africa and relied on qualitative methods, highlighting the need for mixed-methods research with broader geographic coverage to capture varied governance systems and emergency profiles.

Accessible ethics and legal advice for wastewater surveillance: The WWS ethics adviser app

2026-01-30T14:00:00Z

by Tsaone Tamuhla, Mercury Shitindo, Michelle Nichols, Vincent Junxiong Pang, Elyssa Jiawen Liu, Nicki Tiffin

Wastewater surveillance (WWS) has a long history in infectious disease management, from the detection of Salmonella Paratyphi B in sewers by Moore in 1948, to its role in global poliovirus eradication and more recently the deployment of WWS to track SARS-CoV-2. Whilst current interest has focused on pathogen sequencing to monitor outbreaks, WWS encompasses a much broader molecular landscape that includes a wide array of chemical compounds, proteins and DNA from human, animal, plant and microbial organisms. This diversity creates novel opportunities for public health applications, environmental monitoring, biodiversity studies, forensic science and even commercial innovation. The communities from which wastewater is sourced should be the primary beneficiaries of surveillance efforts, but WWS also requires robust governance mechanisms and ethical oversight to prevent harm to communities, ensure equitable practices, fulfil legal obligations and ensure appropriate use of potentially sensitive or commercially valuable findings. End-users of WWS resources must navigate these complexities to ensure ethical and legal compliance and responsible use of WWS samples and data. To assist with this process, we developed the WWS Ethics Adviser, an online interactive tool designed to alert users to context-specific ethical, legal, and governance considerations in WWS activities. The app aims to synthesise the principles of guidelines, treaties and other complex frameworks and resources into concise and actionable information for end users. The content is created within a two-dimensional matrix that categorises molecular entities and their origin against corresponding ethical, legal and governance elements. The tool offers tailored advice for WWS practitioners, oversight committees and responsible parties, in order to support equitable, ethical and legal WWS practices across diverse settings and use cases, and can be found at: https://wastewater-surveillance-ethics.streamlit.app/.

Improving infection prevention and control in Ghana primary health care facilities: Evaluation of the STREAM disinfectant generator

2026-01-30T14:00:00Z

by Adam Drolet, Patience Cofie, Kofi Aburam, Eunice Yaa-Dapaah Boakye, Shan Hsu, Clara Orndorff, Debbie Akweley Amoakwao, Lawrence Ofori-Boadu, Gloria Ntow-Kummi, Kwabena Boakye-Boateng, Robert Adatsi, Agnes Anane

Infection prevention and control is essential for high-quality health care. Chlorine is a widely used disinfectant in health care facilities; however, inconsistent availability and quality pose challenges for health staff. On-site chlorine production offers a potential solution. This study evaluates the reliability, change in chlorine availability and quality, and total cost of ownership of the Aqua Research STREAM Disinfectant Generator in primary health care facilities in Ghana. Our cross-sectional study evaluated 18 STREAM devices across 12 primary health care facilities in Ahafo, Central, and Volta Regions. A mean time between failures approach was used to benchmark device reliability. Historical commercial chlorine stock records were compared with STREAM chlorine production volumes. Chlorine quality assessments compared free residual chlorine levels in commercial and STEAM chlorine samples. A 5-year cost model estimated the total cost of STREAM ownership and per-liter cost savings potential. STREAM units remained functional for 94.8% of the study; 67% (n = 12) functioned without failure. Six devices averaged 60.8 days before their first failure (range 16–96 days). No device recorded more than one component failure. STREAM devices eliminated chlorine stock outs, previously occurring 37 days per year on average. In all, 83% of health facilities were found to have degraded commercial chlorine, whereas 100% of STREAM samples met the device’s target concentration (0.5% ± 0.1% mg/L). The 5-year total cost of ownership ranged from $3,700 to $7,900. District hospitals saw a 17% reduction in annual chlorine supply costs with STREAM units, while health centers experienced an increase of 48%. The STREAM shows promise for improving infection prevention and control practices in Ghana’s health system. Study results informed the Ghana Health Service’s decision to purchase 400 STREAM devices (June 2024). Future research should explore operational models that expand chlorine availability and lower chlorine costs in health facilities.

Micro-and nanoplastics in biological samples following a drinking water intervention in Barcelona, Spain

2026-01-28T14:00:00Z

by Emma Calikanzaros, Carolina Donat-Vargas, Guillaume Chevance, Cathryn Tonne, Maria Rosa Boleda, Joan Dalmau, Xavier Borrell, Rachida Mazigh, Marta Llorca, Marinella Farré, Cristina M. Villanueva

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging contaminants of concern, and drinking water may represent an important exposure pathway. Evidence on internal exposure and contribution of drinking water remains limited. Under the hypothesis that bottled water consumption may lead to higher body burden of MNPs compared to tap water, this exploratory study investigated changes in MNPs and plastic-related additives in human biological samples following sequential changes in drinking water consumption. A randomized crossover intervention was conducted in volunteers (N = 3) sequentially switching between tap and bottled water consumption in randomized phases during 7 weeks (May-July 2022) in Barcelona, Spain. Stool (N = 48), urine (N = 48), tap water (N = 24), and bottled water (N = 2) samples were collected. MNP polymers 0.7-20 µm and chemicals used as additives in plastic production were quantified in biological samples through double suspect screening using high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Microplastics >1 µm in water were analyzed by pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. MNP polymers were detected in N = 40 (83%) stool samples and were above quantification limits (QL) in N = 30 (63%). Polyethylene was > QL in N = 20 (42%), polyamide in N = 8 (17%), polypropylene in N = 8 (17%), and polyoxymethylene in N = 2 (4%) samples. Detection rates were lower in urine samples. Plastic-related additives were identified in all urine samples, N = 27 different additives, with N = 15 > QL (median concentration range: 0.03-2196 µg/L). Microplastic polymers including polypropylene, polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyvinyl chloride were found in 62% of tap water samples (median total concentration: 0.18 µg/L), and polyethylene was detected in bottled water. Within the scope of this exploratory study, no significant differences between phases were found in MNP polymers and plastic additives concentrations in biological samples. Low detection rates of MNP polymers in stool and urine limited the statistical power. Larger, controlled studies are needed to further evaluate the contribution of drinking water on human MNP exposure.

Correction: Mapping valley bottom inundation patterns from beaver dam activity: A potential proxy for hydrologic inefficiency

2026-01-23T14:00:00Z

by Karen M. Bartelt, Patrick Belmont, Jordan T. Gilbert, Edd Hammill, William W. Macfarlane, W. Carl Saunders, Scott Shahverdian, J. Marshall Wolf, Joseph M. Wheaton

Assessing geographic variations in household water disruptions across 30,109 communities in India in 2021

2026-01-21T14:00:00Z

by Anoop Jain, Rockli Kim, S. V. Subramanian

A household has a ‘safely managed’ water service if water is continuously supplied from an improved source. In India, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of households connected to an improved water source over the past few decades. However, much less is known about the extent to which these households are receiving uninterrupted supply and the geographic variation in water service disruptions. Using new data from the fifth round of India’s National Family Health Survey in 2021, we examined the geographic variations in household water disruptions across states and Union Territories, districts, and 30,109 urban and rural communities. The median community-level prevalence of household water disruption was 12.3% across India, and similar in rural and urban communities. The district-level prevalence of household water disruptions varied considerably within states such as Gujarat and Maharashtra, another indication of varying levels of vulnerability. Furthermore, the community-level prevalence of household water disruptions varied within states and districts highlighting the fact that high-burden and low burden communities exist within the same regions. Finally, households with piped water connections experienced the greatest share of water disruptions at the all-India, rural, and urban levels when compared to other improved sources and unimproved sources. Our findings highlight that while an increasing number of people from India have gained access to an improved drinking water source, future efforts should address the contextually relevant determinants of water disruptions.

Harmonization of aggregated freshwater biotic data to support continental and global assessment

2026-01-20T14:00:00Z

by Jennifer Lento, Sarah M. Laske, Joseph M. Culp, Willem Goedkoop, Maria Kahlert, Danny C. P. Lau, Isabelle Lavoie, Jordan Musetta-Lambert, Jón S. Ólafsson, Kirsten S. Christoffersen

Biodiversity loss and conservation are increasingly coming into focus in global policy fora, requiring information and assessments at wider spatial and temporal scales than previously considered. However, the monitoring framework required to support such data collection and assessment is lacking in many countries and is not harmonized across countries, hampering these efforts. Aggregation of existing freshwater data offers a solution to the problem of assessing status and trends of ecosystems and biodiversity at large spatial scales in the absence of nationally coordinated monitoring efforts. Analysis of aggregated data from different sources, collected using different protocols and with varying levels of metadata and supporting data, can be challenging and requires decisions regarding data comparability. In this paper, we identify the challenges inherent in harmonizing aggregated freshwater data for analysis, including general concerns related to research goals, spatial and temporal scale, sample selection, sampling effort, and site integrity. We also discuss the challenges related to measured parameters, sampled habitats, sample collection and processing methods, and data integrity for phytoplankton, benthic algae, macrophytes, zooplankton, benthic macroinvertebrates, fish, and supporting variables such as water and sediment chemistry. We provide a workflow to evaluate each of these challenges and make decisions about how best to work with the data. Finally, we review a case study from a large-scale analysis of freshwater data from the circumpolar Arctic region that exemplifies the encountered challenges and the chosen solutions. Through the description of the case study, we provide practical solutions to support aggregation and analysis of existing freshwater data. As global conversations about biodiversity status and trends continue, the demand for large-scale analyses of data from different sources will only grow. In the absence of globally harmonized monitoring, we are faced with the need to ensure comparability of data, making expert judgements where needed to support sound conclusions.

Success criteria comparison of eight implemented projects to improve the planning, design, and construction of floodplain wetlands

2026-01-16T14:00:00Z

by Robert J. Hawley, Chris Nietch, Donnie Knight, Shelby Acosta, Kurt Cooper, Nora Korth, Abi Raetz, John McManus, Rebecca McClatchy, Jake Hahn, Hannah Lubbers, Laura Lair, Ryan J. Winston

Prior to mass deforestation of uplands and drainage efforts in lowlands, floodplain wetlands were abundant in river valleys. Deforestation of steep slopes and the associated accumulation of alluvial sediment in valley bottoms have left floodplains much drier and largely disconnected from their adjacent rivers, restricting the ecosystem and societal benefits floodplains can provide. By exporting alluvial sediments from floodplains, long buried wetlands can be restored with improved connectivity to stream networks. Such floodplain wetland restoration efforts can provide benefits at orders-of-magnitude lower costs than conventional stormwater control measures (SCMs) by minimizing pipes and other hardened infrastructure. Particularly in urban and suburban watersheds, floodplains are often one of the last open areas to locate SCMs that have the potential to intercept large volumes of runoff. They can also be coupled with recreational opportunities or urban canopy restoration programs, expanding the societal benefits of and opportunities to fund floodplain wetland restoration. This paper presents insights from planning, design, modeling, and construction of eight floodplain wetland restoration projects. The eight projects were compared using success criteria that spanned two themes: 1) maximizing the benefits that the floodplain wetland can provide and 2) maximizing the economic efficiency and durability of the project. As a part of the comparison, we note characteristics for identifying good sites for floodplain wetlands, design optimization strategies for various project goals (e.g., nutrient reductions vs. offloading excessively erosive streamflow vs. flood reduction), and construction sequencing approaches for efficiency and cost minimization. Removing alluvium from floodplains can provide expanded flood storage and lowered flood elevations, restored off-channel habitat for fish/birds, improved water quality, reduced erosion/biotic disturbance for mussels/macroinvertebrates, and, in some cases, the economic benefits of an abundant source of high-quality topsoil for farmers, landscapers, and developers.

Greywater quantities and qualities in low-income Kumasi, Ghana: Implications for sustainable water management

2026-01-16T14:00:00Z

by Barbara Gyapong-Korsah, Godwin Armstrong Duku, Eugene Appiah-Effah, Yenube Clement Kunkuaboor, Patrick Boakye, Kofi Akodwaa-Boadi, Kwabena Biritwum Nyarko

Household greywater from laundry, kitchen, and bathing activities poses growing environmental and public health challenges in peri-urban areas with limited sanitation infrastructure. This study quantified and characterized greywater from 10 households in Kotei, a peri-urban community in Kumasi, Ghana, over a 10-week period in 2023. Daily greywater volumes were measured using a bucket-based method using a cross-sectional design, and physicochemical, bacterial, and chemical parameters were analyzed for laundry, kitchen, and bathroom sources. The mean daily greywater generation was 110 ± 64.2 liters per household, with bathing accounting for 58%, laundry for 23%, and the kitchen for 19%. Laundry greywater exhibited the highest organic and ionic loads (BOD₅: 5431 ± 3440 mg/L; COD: 12469 ± 7325 mg/L; EC: 3825 ± 2635 µS/cm), while kitchen greywater showed the highest bacterial contamination (total coliforms: 136 ± 66 cfu/mL; E. coli: 34 ± 24.70 cfu/mL). Phosphate levels exceeded Ghana EPA standards across all sources, and trace metals (Pb, Fe) and triclosan were detected, indicating potential ecological risks. MANOVA confirmed significant differences in greywater characteristics among sources (p < 0.001). This study advances understanding by integrating source-specific quality data from low-income households within a peri-urban context. The findings reinforce the need for cost-effective, decentralized treatment options such as household-scale biochar filters, gravel–sand filtration systems, or constructed wetlands, that can be adapted to varying socioeconomic conditions.

Four water insecurity concerns about datacenters driving the AI revolution

2026-01-13T14:00:00Z

by Sameer H. Shah

Datacenters are powering the Artificial Intelligence (AI) revolution. However, their water insecurity risks remain neglected. Limited research on the matter quantifies water demand at national or watershed-scales and estimates water use associated with training and using AI models. Research fails to examine water insecurity concerns held by households and communities where datacenters are planned or are operational. This article identifies four water insecurity concerns in the U.S. by synthesizing public reporting and legal filings involving non-governmental organizations, citizen coalition groups, investigative reporters, and individual citizens. These concerns include how datacenters’ development and operation can (i) undermine the democratization of water governance; (ii) contribute to unsustainable water use and rising utility costs; (iii) reduce the flexibility and resilience of water use decision-making; and (iv) increase water use across scales as a result of rising electricity demand. Three areas for future research are identified from the cases reviewed. First, local governments and utilities do not always readily provide water use data associated with datacenter operations; hence, public records should be requested and shared to democratize decision-making. Second, water-related risks posed to public health, rural and land-based livelihoods, and ecosystems from datacenter operations require context-specific empirical investigation. Third, examining whether and how specific water governance arrangements can engender acute health, economic, and environmental risks, especially under extreme events such as heatwaves or droughts, requires institutional analyses. Overall, analyzing datacenters’ volumetric water use within local contexts offers a more relevant analysis of water insecurity concerns and experiences.

Socioecological drivers of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) choices: A qualitative analysis of maternal perspectives in northwest Ecuador

2026-01-12T14:00:00Z

by Molly K. Miller-Petrie, Gwenyth O. Lee, Marie L. Spiker, Adriana Lupero, Mauricio Ayovi, William Cevallos, Gabriel Trueba, Joseph N. S. Eisenberg, Karen Levy

Household-level water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions do not always achieve sustainable uptake. Research that considers WASH within a socioecological framework, where multi-level factors are interconnected in influencing choices, can inform more effective interventions. To understand WASH preferences and priorities under different socioeconomic and community contexts, we conducted in-depth interviews and freelisting activities with 33 mothers of children under age two participating in the ECoMiD study in northwest Ecuador. Data were inductively coded and connected thematically to the socioecological framework. Select survey data from ECoMiD were analyzed to provide additional context. Maternal WASH choices are driven by factors at each level of the framework. Climatic: seasonal flooding decreases the appeal of WASH investments like cisterns, and household wealth facilitates access in times of climatic stress. Geographic: benefits of WASH access via proximity to piped systems are complicated by quality and consistency concerns, while access from proximity to rivers is complicated by labor requirements. Community: local infrastructure dictates individual options for accessing WASH, and local conditions are dictated by national sociopolitical context and policy decisions. Household: consistent, quality piped water for drinking and chores is the most common maternal WASH preference. WASH choices respond to financial and labor constraints. Individual: mothers value time-savings associated with WASH technologies and access. Maternal decision making operates at the terminus of a chain of broader and interconnected socioecological conditions. The burden of obtaining WASH access is greatest for the poorest households with the least community infrastructure, compounded by seasonal conditions. This contextually grounded study draws attention to how socio-spatial, economic, and environmental constraints interact in the Ecuadorian context to shape lived experience. Improving community-level WASH and taking a multisectoral approach to health interventions would better address barriers to WASH access, and support mothers in making WASH-related choices that can ultimately improve child health and wellbeing.

New definitions for good practice: Regulators as activists for urban road-transported sanitation in eastern and southern Africa

2026-01-08T14:00:00Z

by Claire Grisaffi, Paul Leinster, Reuben Sipuma, Emanuel Owako, Alison Parker

This paper considers the changing role of national and local regulators scaling safe emptying and transport of faecal sludge in east and southern Africa. We aim to understand how regulators are going beyond currently defined good practice and what should be learnt for others. Established roles and characteristics for regulators were synthesised and emergent practice identified, through secondary data review and key informant interviews within leading national and local regulators. This paper identified how utilities and municipalities are required to work as local regulators of service providers, who fall outside of direct or delegated arrangements, and that this role should be formally recognised to facilitate wider change. We describe the moral courage demonstrated by regulators in attempting to engage the informal sector and scale services in the face of limited resources and capacity, incomplete rules and fragmented roles and powers. Engaging informal manual emptiers already working in low-income areas, and enabling them to work safely, is considered an important part of reaching universal access by leading regulators but is not recognised in current legal frameworks and guidance. Moral courage is an important part of building trust and voluntary compliance. It is also imperative given the public health impacts of poor sanitation on the poorest and most vulnerable, and the need to challenge deeply held stigma and prejudice. We see these leading regulators as social and environmental activists, not just actors. We conclude that the focus for the sector should be on reducing the risks faced by organisations scaling this most basic of public services. In the immediate term, local, national, regional and global leaders need to recognise the important role of the informal sector in sanitation and actively support local regulators in reaching universal access.

Comparative effects of chlorine and UV LED disinfection on drinking water and biofilms, with chlorine causing greater shifts in microbial community composition

2026-01-07T14:00:00Z

by Yijing Liu, Amanda B. Killian, Karl G. Linden, Natalie M. Hull

Microorganisms in drinking water systems can form biofilms that promote microbial regrowth, and reduce disinfection efficiency, potentially increasing human exposure and health risks. The 16S rRNA gene was sequenced to compare the yearlong impacts of slow-sand filter effluent disinfection by chlorination versus UV light-emitting diodes (LEDs) on bacterial communities in water and biofilm samples at a water treatment plant. Significant differences were observed between sample types (water and biofilm) and sample sources (filter influent, filter effluent, chlorine effluent, and UV LED effluent). Dominant phyla that were observed are commonly found in water treatment systems, including Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes, with notable detection of the Polaromonas genus for this rural, mountain setting. Biofilms were significantly different from bulk water in terms of beta diversity and abundance of taxa present. The microbial community in biofilms after chlorination differed significantly from biofilms after filtration and biofilms after UV LED disinfection, while those after filtration did not differ from UV LED disinfection, highlighting the particular significance of chlorine in impacting downstream biofilm microbiomes. This difference in selective pressure due to disinfection was also seen for genera containing potential opportunistic pathogens. Among environmental variables, DOC and precipitation were significantly associated with water sample microbial community structure; and significant relationships were observed with some of the most abundant taxa and/or differentially abundant taxa including Legionella, Escherichia, Shigella, and Pseudomonas. Understanding differences in selective pressure after UV-LED as compared to chlorine disinfection can inform development of disinfection practices to optimize disinfection and minimize human health risks.

Source water protection and wildfire threats: A simplified vulnerability assessment framework for drinking water intakes

2026-01-05T14:00:00Z

by Evelyne Pouliot, Françoise Bichai, Raja Kammoun, Sarah Dorner

Post-wildfire contamination poses a serious threat to drinking water in forested watersheds, with implications for long-term resilience of drinking water treatment plants. Infrastructure such as pumping equipment and transportation piping systems can also be exposed to wildfire-related impacts. Wildfires significantly alter water quality by increasing sediment loads, dissolved organic carbon, nutrients, and heavy metals. Fire suppression efforts further introduce contaminants, such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, which persist in the environment and pose long-term risks to drinking water safety. This study presents a broadly applicable framework to assess the vulnerability of drinking water intake to the post-wildfire runoff and erosion response. It is designed for use across diverse geographic and environmental contexts, draws on readily available data, incorporates key post-wildfire runoff and erosion parameters, and accounts for climate change to address future contamination threats to water supplies. The framework calculates a vulnerability index incorporating information about forest cover, runoff potential, fire regime under climate change, and rainfall under climate change. The index is further refined accounting for drinking water intake exposure. Its design enables prioritization of sub-watersheds despite data availability while remaining adaptable to more refined datasets when available. The results indicate that forest cover and runoff potential are the dominant variables influencing final index scores, while rainfall projections under climate change amplify post-wildfire water contamination. Although wildfire threats driven by climate change continue to increase, drinking water managers often fail to integrate potential climate-driven hazards to surface water supply into their long-term adaptation strategies. Ensuring drinking water treatment plant resilience will require both adaptable assessment tools and scalable protection planning. In response, this framework supports informed decision-making to enforce targeted land use regulations, and develop emergency response strategies. These measures help mitigate post-wildfire impacts on drinking water intakes and support infrastructure adaptation accordingly.

Rethinking monitoring of the means of implementation for SDG 6 up to 2030 and beyond

2025-12-30T14:00:00Z

by Marina Takane, Kelly Ann Naylor, Fiona Gore, Joakim Harlin, Paul Glennie, Stuart Crane, William Reidhead, Bruce Gordon

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development identified the Means of Implementation (MoI) as critical to achieving all Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. While the two global indicators for SDG 6 (6.a.1 and 6.b.1) provide an important entry point for monitoring MoIs, there is significant opportunity to broaden their scope, enhance their use, and better integrate them into national and global monitoring systems to support acceleration of progress on SDG 6 outcomes. This paper explores the challenges and opportunities related to monitoring SDG 6 MoIs up to 2030 and looking ahead into the post-2030 development agenda. Drawing on recent assessments and expert insights, the paper proposes actionable ways to enhance MoI monitoring: expanding the narrative beyond existing indicators; investing in national data systems; developing evidence-based, actionable indicators; and linking MoI indicators more closely to outcomes in national and global monitoring mechanisms. The authors emphasize strengthening national monitoring systems to systematically capture MoI-related inputs and processes, thereby enhancing their utility for national planning and global reporting. Looking ahead, the paper proposes preparing better formulated MoI targets and indicators in a post-2030 sustainable development framework—focused on the key drivers of change and designed to inform national decision-making. In view of the lack of progress on the SDGs, it is more important than ever to invest time and effort to improve the monitoring of the MoI. By reinforcing the connections between inputs and outcomes, and by embedding MoIs more coherently across all SDG 6 targets, monitoring can become a catalyst for transformation.

Autoclaved but not safe: Persistence of bla_CTX-M and bla_TEM genes encoding extended spectrum β-lactamase in autoclaved microbiological waste destined for municipal sewage disposal in Mwanza, Tanzania

2025-12-30T14:00:00Z

by Johannes Rukyaa, Andrew Charle, Vitus Silago, Prisca Damiano, Stephen E. Mshana

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing global public health threat, and effective treatment of microbiological waste is essential in preventing the spread of resistance genes into the environment. Autoclaving is commonly used in healthcare and laboratory settings to sterilize microbiological waste, ensuring the destruction of viable bacteria. However, the fate of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs), such as bla_CTX-M and bla_TEM, following autoclaving is not well understood. To fill this critical gap, this study determined the PCR stability of AMR encoding genes from autoclaved microbiological waste in Mwanza, Tanzania. A laboratory-based experimental study was conducted between May and August 2024 at the Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences (CUHAS). Standard and resistant E. coli strains carrying bla_CTX-M and bla_TEM genes were subjected to autoclaving at 121°C and 0.1 MPa with varying duration. Bacterial viability was assessed through sub-culturing on MacConkey agar, while the presence of ARGs was evaluated using multiplex PCR. Although autoclaving eliminated culturable bacteria, PCR amplification still detected fragments of blaCTX-M and blaTEM after 30 minutes. PCR detection demonstrates amplifiable DNA fragments only, not plasmid integrity or transfer potential. These findings highlight the persistence of ARGs in treated waste and call for a re-evaluation of current bio-safety protocols.

Evaluation of the efficiency of conventional drinking water treatment plant using machine learning and water quality index in low-income countries: A case study of Adama City, Ethiopia

2025-12-23T14:00:00Z

by Abelkassim Beshir, Daniel Reddythota, Esayas Alemayehu

Ensuring safe drinking water requires monitoring water quality parameters, optimizing plant design, and addressing emerging contaminants. This study evaluates the efficiency of the Adama City Conventional Drinking Water Treatment Plant (CDWTP) using machine learning model and the Water Quality Index (WQI). Water samples were collected from various treatment stages and analyzed for physicochemical and bacteriological parameters. The study employed the VARMAX model to predict water quality trends based on historical data. Results indicate that the CDWTP operated with an average efficiency of 89%, though performance fluctuated due to operational and environmental factors. While the final treated water generally met World Health Organization (WHO) standards, total coliform levels exceeded permissible limits, suggesting the need for improvements in chlorine disinfection. The plant demonstrated high removal efficiencies for key contaminants, including iron (99.82%), turbidity (99.27%), ammonia nitrogen (98.55%) and phosphate (99.89%). The water quality index (WQI) was 26.149 classified Adama City’s treated water as “excellent.” The study further utilized predictive modeling to assess the plant’s ability to maintain water quality over the next five years considering the limitation. The model relied on historical data, limiting its ability to capture sudden water quality changes and non-linear interactions, with results indicating continued compliance with WHO standards when proper operational measures are maintained. To sustain this performance, ongoing monitoring, optimal chemical dosage, and infrastructure improvements are recommended. These findings provide valuable insights for policymakers and water management authorities to enhance treatment efficiency and ensure long-term water security.

Agricultural water management for adaptation and mitigation: Tension or co-benefits in achieving global good?

2025-12-17T14:00:00Z

by Nicole Lefore, Petra Schmitter

Piped water skepticism: Implications for achieving water security

2025-12-11T14:00:00Z

by Patrick Thomson, Amber Wutich

The need for strategic water actions within planetary boundaries

2025-12-08T14:00:00Z

by Petr Vesnovskii, Pär Larshans